<div class="sp-wrap">
<div class="sp-head folded">Part I A Documentary History</div>
<div class="sp-body">Book Cover
Half-Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Maps
Notes on the sources
List of abbreviations
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Map 1 The Near East in the third century
Introduction
(1) Outline of Romano-Persian relations (224–363)
(2) The problem of the sources
(3) The structure of the book
1 The Rise of the Sassanians
1.1.1. The lineage, parentage, and childhood of Ardashir (r. 226–241/2) (32 XYZ null 456 null)
1.1.2. The revolt of Ardashir (c. 208–224) (33 XYZ null 462 null)
1.1.3. Ardashir’s initial (and unsuccessful) attempt to capture Hatra (c. 229) (37 XYZ null 528 null)
1.1.4. His failure in Armenia10 (37 XYZ null 408 null)
1.1.5. Ardashir’s invasion of Roman territory and his demand for the restitution of the Achaemenid possessions in Europe (37 XYZ null 174 null)
1.2.1. The reply of Alexander Severus to Ardashir (38 XYZ null 204 null)
1.2.2. Invasion of Mesopotamia and Cappadocia by Ardashir (39 XYZ null 504 null)
1.2.3. Alexander Severus’ preparation for his campaign and his speech before the troops (39 XYZ null 318 null)
1.2.4. Renewed attempts at negotiation and their failure (41 XYZ null 600 null)
1.2.5. Suppression of mutinies by Alexander Severus (41 XYZ null 180 null)
1.3.1. Visit of Alexander Severus to Palmyra (c. 230/1) (43 XYZ null 312 null)
1.3.2. Repair to the Zela-Sebastopolis road as preparation for Alexander Severus’ Persian campaign (231) (44 XYZ null 600 null)
1.3.3. The Persian campaign of Alexander Severus (231–3) (44 XYZ null 342 null)
1.3.4. Road repair in Mesopotamia, near the Tigris (231/2) (48 XYZ null 264 null)
1.3.5. Appearance of the dux ripae at Dura Europos23 (before 245) (49 XYZ null 600 null)
1.4.1. Causes of Alexander Severus’ withdrawal from the East (49 XYZ null 486 null)
1.4.2. Eastern troops taken by Alexander Severus to Germany (50 XYZ null 504 null)
1.4.3. The triumphal return to Rome of Alexander Severus and his speech to the Senate (25 September 233) (50 XYZ null 330 null)
1.4.4. The Persian attack of 238/9 (51 XYZ null 204 null)
1.4.5. Roman assistance to Hatra (52 XYZ null 474 null)
1.5.1. The fall of Hatra to the Persians (240)31 (52 XYZ null 288 null)
2 The Persian Expedition of Gordian III (53 XYZ null 600 null)
2.1.1. Renewal of hostility between Rome and Persia (241) (53 XYZ null 456 null)
2.1.2. Shapur’s accession to sole rule (53 XYZ null 324 null)
2.1.3. Description of his Empire (53 XYZ null 210 null)
2.1.4. Restoration of the kingdom of Edessa by Gordian III (54 XYZ null 456 null)
2.1.5. The death of Gordian and the Roman withdrawal (244): (a) the Persian view (54 XYZ null 288 null)
2.2.1. The death of Gordian: (b) the Roman view9 (54 XYZ null 132 null)
2.2.2. The participation of the philosopher Plotinus in the expedition of Gordian (62 XYZ null 432 null)
2.2.3. Philip’s treaty with Shapur I (62 XYZ null 288 null)
2.2.4. The accession of Philip and general political instability in the East (63 XYZ null 498 null)
2.2.5. Attempt by Philip to regain Mesopotamia and Armenia(?) (64 XYZ null 588 null)
2.3.1. Julius Priscus placed in charge of the East (64 XYZ null 468 null)
2.3.2. Julius Priscus made rector orientis (65 XYZ null 600 null)
2.3.3. Dedication by a prefect of a newly formed (or reformed) heavy cavalry unit at Bostra (between 244 and 249) (65 XYZ null 510 null)
2.3.4. Sepulchral inscription of a veteran of Legio VIII Augusta in Syria (65 XYZ null 378 null)
3 The Second and Third Campaigns of Shapur I against the Roman Empire (66 XYZ null 600 null)
3.1.1. Khosrov II of Armenia was murdered at the instigation of the Sassanians (after 244) (66 XYZ null 456 null)
3.1.2. Nisibis captured by the Persians (252?)1 (66 XYZ null 348 null)
3.1.3. The murder of Khosrov II of Armenia and flight of Trdat (Tiridates) to the Roman court(?) (66 XYZ null 264 null)
3.1.4. Shapur’s second campaign against the Roman Empire (252) (67 XYZ null 600 null)
3.1.5. Antioch betrayed by Mariades (or Kyriades)22 to Shapur I (253?)23 (68 XYZ null 378 null)
3.2.1. Some incidents related to the fall of Antioch (253? or 260?) (70 XYZ null 600 null)
3.2.2. A Persian column defeated at Emesa
(71 XYZ null 498 null)
3.2.3. Inscriptions commemorating the victory of Emesenes over Shapur I (?)33 (72 XYZ null 396 null)
3.2.4. Repair to the walls of Batnae by a Prefect of Osrhoene (after 256?) (72 XYZ null 180 null)
3.2.5. Transfer of troops to Arabia (259?) (73 XYZ null 564 null)
3.2.6. Shapur’s third campaign against the Roman Empire (260?): (a) The Persian view (73 XYZ null 456 null)
3.3.1. The third campaign of Shapur and the capture of Valerian: (b) The Roman and Byzantine view46 (74 XYZ null 528 null)
3.3.2. The Prophet Mani’s participation in the campaigns of Shapur I59 (80 XYZ null 600 null)
3.3.3. Attempt by Kirder the Mobed to introduce Zoroastrianism to conquered Roman territory (80 XYZ null 498 null)
3.3.4. Fulvius Macrianus refused to send help to Valerian (80 XYZ null 246 null)
3.3.5. Ballista rallied Roman stragglers and inflicted defeats on Persians in Lykaonia (81 XYZ null 552 null)
3.4.1. Shapur bribed the Roman soldiers at Edessa to facilitate his return journey (82 XYZ null 600 null)
3.4.2. The settlement of Roman prisoners by Shapur in Persian territory (82 XYZ null 426 null)
4 The Rise and Fall of Palmyra (83 XYZ null 600 null)
4.1.1. Dedication to Septimius Odaenathus (date uncertain) (83 XYZ null 456 null)
4.1.2. Sepulchral inscription of Septimius Odaenathus (date uncertain)2 (83 XYZ null 348 null)
4.1.3. Unsuccessful attempt by Septimius Odaenathus to make a treaty with Shapur I (83 XYZ null 192 null)
4.1.4. Dedication to Septimius Haeranes, son of Septimius Odaenathus (251) (84 XYZ null 528 null)
4.1.5. Dedication to Septimius Odaenathus (April, 252) (84 XYZ null 372 null)
4.2.1. Dedication to Julius Aurelius Oge, strategos of Palmyra (254) (84 XYZ null 216 null)
4.2.2. Dedication to Septimius Haeranes (257/8) (85 XYZ null 600 null)
4.2.3. Statue of Septimius Odaenathus (junior?) raised by the guild of gold and silver workers at Palmyra (258) (85 XYZ null 510 null)
4.2.4. Dedication to Aurelius Vorodes, Knight and senator of Palmyra (258/9) (85 XYZ null 390 null)
4.2.5. Dedication to Septimius Haeranes by (Septimius?) Vorodes, senator (date unknown) (85 XYZ null 270 null)
4.3.1. Sack of Nehardea by Odaenathus
(between 259 and 263) (85 XYZ null 162 null)
4.3.2. The victories of Septimius Odaenathus over the Persians and Roman pretenders (c. 262–c. 266) (86 XYZ null 516 null)
4.3.3. Dedication to Septimius Odaenathus from the Tyrians (date unknown). (91 XYZ null 384 null)
4.3.4. Dedication to Septimius Herodianus for victory over the Persians in Syria (date unknown). (91 XYZ null 276 null)
4.3.5. Peace between Odaenathus and Gallienus (c. 264) (92 XYZ null 600 null)
4.4.1. Dedications to Septimius Vorodes,18 Procurator Augusti ducenarius (92 XYZ null 498 null)
4.4.2. The Persian war of Gallienus as told by Malalas (93 XYZ null 414 null)
4.4.3. Odaenathus’ devotion to his son Herodes (93 XYZ null 234 null)
4.4.4. His other two sons, Herrenianus and Timolaus (94 XYZ null 564 null)
4.5.1. Death of Odaenathus (c 266/7) (94 XYZ null 306 null)
4.5.2. The character and achievements of Odaenathus (96 XYZ null 432 null)
4.5.3. The character and ambition of Zenobia (96 XYZ null 228 null)
4.5.4. Zenobia held power in the name of her sons after the death of Odaenathus (97 XYZ null 168 null)
4.5.5. Dedication to Zenobia and her son Vaballathus Athenodorus (c 268/70) (98 XYZ null 510 null)
4.6.1. Predominance of Palmyrene power in the East—defeat of Heraclianus (c. 268) (98 XYZ null 330 null)
4.6.2. Zenobia founded a city/fortress on the Euphrates (date uncertain) (99 XYZ null 600 null)
4.6.3. Alleged support for Paul of Samosata, heretical bishop of Antioch (c. 260–89), by Zenobia (99 XYZ null 414 null)
4.6.4. The invasion of Arabia by Zenobia (99 XYZ null 306 null)
4.6.5. Expansion of Palmyrene power into Egypt (c. 270)25 (100 XYZ null 600 null)
4.7.1. Epitaph of a soldier who fell in the Egyptian campaign (101 XYZ null 600 null)
4.7.2. Statues to Septimius Odaenathus and Zenobia raised on adjacent columns at Palmyra (271) (101 XYZ null 498 null)
4.7.3. Dedications to Vaballathus Athenodorus found on milestones near Bostra (101 XYZ null 276 null)
4.7.4. Aurelian marched against Zenobia, the recovery of Tyana (271/2) (102 XYZ null 600 null)
4.7.5. Egyptian documents (in Greek) dated by the joint regnal year of Aurelian and Vaballathus Athenodorus (272) (104 XYZ null 528 null)
4.8.1. Accession of Hormizd as Shahanshah of Persia (272). His succession by Bahram I (273–276). (104 XYZ null 342 null)
4.8.2. Aurelian defeated the Palmyrenes at Immae and recovered Antioch (272). (104 XYZ null 222 null)
4.8.3. Aurelian marched on Palmyra, attempts at negotiation (Spring, 272) (107 XYZ null 240 null)
4.8.4. The siege of Palmyra, the escape and capture of Zenobia (109 XYZ null 600 null)
4.8.5. Dialogue between Aurelian and Zenobia after her capture (110 XYZ null 174 null)
4.9.1. Execution of the supporters of Zenobia (111 XYZ null 552 null)
4.9.2. The defeat and capture of Zenobia as told by Malalas (112 XYZ null 600 null)
4.9.3. The victory salutations of Aurelian (112 XYZ null 354 null)
4.9.4. The revolt of Palmyra under Septimius Apsaeus and its final destruction by Aurelian (c. 272) (112 XYZ null 210 null)
4.9.5. Dedication to Septimius Apsaeus (date uncertain) (114 XYZ null 600 null)
4.10.1. Support given to Aurelian by the priests of Bel (273–4) (114 XYZ null 546 null)
4.10.2. Firmus, friend and ally of Zenobia, seized Egypt after her defeat (c. 272) (114 XYZ null 330 null)
4.10.3. Zenobia was paraded in Aurelian’s triumph in Rome (274) (116 XYZ null 600 null)
4.10.4. Aurelian’s high regard for Zenobia (117 XYZ null 228 null)
4.10.5. Aurelian’s declaration of war on the Persians and his murder (275) (118 XYZ null 384 null)
4.11.1. Zenobia’s subsequent life in Rome and her descendants (118 XYZ null 228 null)
4.11.2. Peace between Rome and Persia after the death of Aurelian (119 XYZ null 432 null)
4.11.3. Attempt by Florianus (Augustus, April–June 276) to attack Persia was foiled by his assassination (119 XYZ null 324 null)
4.11.4. The exploits of Odaenathus recalled by Libanius (c. 391) (119 XYZ null 216 null)
4.11.5. Request by Libanius for a copy of the oration on Odaenathus by Longinus (c. 393) (120 XYZ null 456 null)
5.1.1. The accession of Bahram II (276–293) (121 XYZ null 456 null)
5.1.2. Peace between Probus and the Persians (121 XYZ null 372 null)
5.1.3. Probus’ plan to invade Persia and his death (282) (122 XYZ null 600 null)
5.1.4. Dedication to Probus by Syrian villagers (?282) (122 XYZ null 522 null)
5.1.5. Internal unrest in Persia (c. 283) (122 XYZ null 402 null)
5.1.6. The Persian Expedition of Carus, his initial success and his death (283) (122 XYZ null 294 null)
5.2.1. Conflicting accounts of the achievements of Numerianus16 and Carinus, the sons of Carus (126 XYZ null 600 null)
5.2.2. A story associated with the Armenian (Persian?) war of Carus or Carinus (128 XYZ null 234 null)
5.2.3. Diocletian’s truce with the Persians (130 XYZ null 600 null)
5.2.4. Return of Trdat to Armenia with Roman military assistance
(c. 287)26 (130 XYZ null 270 null)
5.2.5. Diocletian fortifies Circesium and reorganizes the eastern frontier (287?) (130 XYZ null 162 null)
5.3.1. Diocletian’s campaign against the Saracens (? May/June, 290) (131 XYZ null 432 null)
5.3.2. The accession of Bahram (III) and his brief reign (293) (132 XYZ null 600 null)
5.3.3. The accession of Narses (c. 293) (132 XYZ null 426 null)
5.3.4. Renewal of hostilities by Narses (c. 293). (132 XYZ null 342 null)
5.3.5. The Persian Campaigns of Diocletian and Galerius (296–298) (133 XYZ null 360 null)
5.4.1. Assuristan raided by Armenians(?) (138 XYZ null 186 null)
5.4.2. Negotiations between Galerius and the envoy of Narses (139 XYZ null 600 null)
5.4.3. The peace settlement between Diocletian and Narses (298 or 299) (140 XYZ null 600 null)
5.4.4. Participation of Constantine (the Great) in the expedition of Galerius(?) (141 XYZ null 600 null)
5.4.5. The achievements of Verinus in Armenia recalled by Symmachus (141 XYZ null 498 null)
5.5.1. The triumph of Diocletian and Galerius at Rome (c. 298) (141 XYZ null 366 null)
5.5.2. The victories of Diocletian and Galerius as recalled by Eumenius54 (141 XYZ null 246 null)
5.5.3. Manichaeans accused of being a pro-Persian fifth-column (c. 302)55 (142 XYZ null 528 null)
5.5.4. The accession of Hormizd II (302) (143 XYZ null 456 null)
5.5.5. General efforts by Diocletian to strengthen the eastern frontier (287ff.)59 (143 XYZ null 348 null)
5.6.1. A wayfarer’s appreciation of the improved provisions for travellers in the frontier regions (late 3rd or early 4th C.) (145 XYZ null 414 null)
5 From Probus to Diocletian (121 XYZ null 600 null)
6 Rome and Shapur II (150 XYZ null 600 null)
6.1.1. The birth and childhood of Shapur II (150 XYZ null 456 null)
6.1.2. The cruelty of Adarnases (Shahanshah 309/10) (151 XYZ null 600 null)
6.1.3. The problems which beset the Sassanian Empire at the accession of Shapur II and his qualities as a monarch3 (151 XYZ null 348 null)
6.1.4. His early wars against the Arabs (151 XYZ null 276 null)
6.1.5. The Armenian campaign of Maximinus Daia (c. Nov., 312) (151 XYZ null 216 null)
6.1.6. Formation of a mobile field army by Constantine (before 325) (152 XYZ null 282 null)
6.2.1. Constantine rebuilt Chalcedon and his defeat by Persians
(c. 324) (153 XYZ null 552 null)
6.2.2. Victory
of Constantine over Shapur II and provincial reorganization (date unknown) (153 XYZ null 252 null)
6.2.3. The flight of Hormisdas to Rome (324?)10 (154 XYZ null 600 null)
6.2.4. Construction of a reservoir on the Syrian limes (324) (156 XYZ null 564 null)
6.2.5. Letter of Constantini the Great to Shapur II (after 324?) (156 XYZ null 432 null)
6.2.6. Dedication to Constantine and his family from Arabia (between 326 and 333) (158 XYZ null 414 null)
6.3.1. Unrest in Armenia leading to Persian intervention (?)22 (158 XYZ null 294 null)
6.3.2. The ‘lies of Metrodorus’ (326/7) (158 XYZ null 198 null)
6.3.3. Caesar Constantius was sent to take command of the Eastern frontier (c. 336) (159 XYZ null 396 null)
6.3.4. Narses, brother
of Shapur II, captured Amida but was killed in battle (at Narasara?) (c. 336?) (159 XYZ null 240 null)
6.3.5. Refortification of the city of Amida by the Caesar Constantius (before 337) (160 XYZ null 600 null)
6.4.1. Constantine appointed his nephew Hannibalianus as ‘King of Kings and of the Pontic peoples’ (335) (160 XYZ null 372 null)
6.4.2. Constantine’s preparation for war against the Persians and his death (22 May, 337) (160 XYZ null 156 null)
6.4.3. Hope for Roman victory as expressed by a Christian writer in Persia (c. 337) (166 XYZ null 240 null)
6.4.4. The career of a descendant of a Roman prisoner of war in the Persian Empire (167 XYZ null 468 null)
7 Rome and Shapur II (169 XYZ null 600 null)
7.1.1. Hannibalianus, the king of Pontus and neighbouring regions, was murdered by soldiers loyal to Constantius in a palace coup (337) (169 XYZ null 456 null)
7.1.2. Unrest in Armenia as a consequence of the murder of Hannibalianus
(169 XYZ null 270 null)
7.1.3. The first siege of Nisibis (337 or 338) (170 XYZ null 600 null)
7.1.4. Death of Jacob of Nisibis (after 337/8) (175 XYZ null 564 null)
7.1.5. Constantius’ return to the East (175 XYZ null 204 null)
7.1.6. The Armenian settlement (c. 337/8) (176 XYZ null 600 null)
7.2.1. Treaty between Constantius and the Arabs (338?)12 (176 XYZ null 234 null)
7.2.2. Restoration of military discipline by Constantius (177 XYZ null 600 null)
7.2.3. Roman cavalry equipment strengthened by Constantius (177 XYZ null 330 null)
7.2.4. Constantius arrived at the Eastern Frontier but was unable to bring the enemy into open battle (338/9) (178 XYZ null 600 null)
7.2.5. The Persian war used as an excuse by Arian leaders for not appearing before Pope Julius who had summoned them (c. 338) (179 XYZ null 396 null)
7.3.1. Dedication to Constantius who was on the point of embarking on his Persian campaign by a contemporary epitomator of the campaigns of Alexander and Trajan (before 340) (180 XYZ null 600 null)
7.3.2. Roman raids across the Tigris (340ff.?)16 (182 XYZ null 564 null)
7.3.3. A Persian city was captured by Constantius on one of his forays into enemy territory (c. 343) (182 XYZ null 396 null)
7.3.4. The battle of Singara (343 or 344)20 (183 XYZ null 228 null)
7.3.5. Defeat and flight of Constantius (date uncertain) (191 XYZ null 552 null)
7.4.1. Capture of Singara by the Persians (date uncertain) (191 XYZ null 396 null)
7.4.2. Constantius in Nisibis (May, 345)29 (191 XYZ null 222 null)
7.4.3. The foundation of Tella/Constantia (346?) (192 XYZ null 480 null)
7.4.4. The foundation of other fortresses in Mesopotamia (date unknown) (192 XYZ null 384 null)
7.4.5. The second siege of Nisibis (346) (192 XYZ null 240 null)
7.5.1. Redemption of prisoners by bishop Babu31 of Nisibis (after 346) (193 XYZ null 552 null)
7.5.2. Constantius in Edessa (c. 346) (193 XYZ null 180 null)
7.5.3. Nocturnal Sally by two Roman units based at Singara (348?) (194 XYZ null 564 null)
7.5.4. Rebuilding of a tower by the dux Silvinianus (348) (194 XYZ null 372 null)
7.5.5. The third siege of Nisibis (350)33 (194 XYZ null 264 null)
7.5.6. Constantius at Edessa (after Jan. 350) (206 XYZ null 492 null)
7.6.1. Strengthening of the Syrian frontier by Constantius prior to his departure to the West (350) (206 XYZ null 384 null)
7.6.2. Building inscriptions from the Syrian-Arabian frontier (350–353) (206 XYZ null 240 null)
7.6.3. Importance of Antioch to the Persian Campaigns of Constantius (207 XYZ null 600 null)
7.6.4. The Persian mailed cavalry (cataphracts) as described in contemporary fiction (207 XYZ null 234 null)
8 Rome and Shapur II (209 XYZ null 600 null)
(A) CHRONOLOGY AND ANALYSIS OF THE SOURCES (209 XYZ null 456 null)
The years of comparative peace (353–356) (209 XYZ null 414 null)
The prelude to war (357–359) (209 XYZ null 222 null)
The outbreak of hostilities (359) (210 XYZ null 468 null)
The siege and fall of Amida (359) (210 XYZ null 180 null)
The aftermath of the fall of Amida (359–360) (211 XYZ null 408 null)
(B) THE SOURCES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF THEIR AUTHORS) (212 XYZ null 516 null)
9 Rome and Shapur II (225 XYZ null 600 null)
(A) CHRONOLOGY AND ANALYSIS OF THE SOURCES (225 XYZ null 456 null)
The preliminaries (225 XYZ null 414 null)
From Antioch to Callinicum (5–27 March) (225 XYZ null 222 null)
From Callinicum to Maiozamalcha (April-mid-June) (226 XYZ null 456 null)
The Roman army at Seleucia/Coche/Ctesiphon (228 XYZ null 408 null)
The Roman withdrawal (229 XYZ null 456 null)
Death of Julian (26 June) (229 XYZ null 156 null)
Election of Jovian (27 June) (230 XYZ null 576 null)
The peace negotiations (? 8–11 July) (230 XYZ null 396 null)
(B) THE SOURCES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF THEIR AUTHORS) (230 XYZ null 228 null)
Appendix 1 Select passages from sources in Arabic and New Persian (261 XYZ null 600 null)
Appendix 2 Select passages from Armenian historians (281 XYZ null 600 null)
Appendix 3 Select documents from Dura Europos (302 XYZ null 600 null)
(1) FROM THE FILES OF THE XX COHORS PALMYRENORUM (302 XYZ null 456 null)
(A) Morning reports (302 XYZ null 264 null)
(B) List of men and mounts (305 XYZ null 492 null)
(2) DOCUMENTS IN MIDDLE IRANIAN (306 XYZ null 420 null)
(A) Letter of a Persian official to Shapur (306 XYZ null 378 null)
(B) Inscriptions from the Synagogue (307 XYZ null 324 null)
Appendix 4 Eastern victories in imperial titulature. From Alexander Severus to Constantius II (222–361)1 (309 XYZ null 600 null)
Appendix 5 The frontier units according to the notitia dignitatum (313 XYZ null 600 null)
Notes (320 XYZ null 600 null)
Bibliography of secondary works (369 XYZ null 600 null)
POSTSCRIPT (383 XYZ null 237 null)
Important note on 6.2.1 (p. 146) (384 XYZ null 462 null)
Index of translated passages (385 XYZ null 600 null)
General index (399 XYZ null 600 null)
